Why I Believe – In God

Posted on November 26, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

Does God exist, or not? Were we intentionally created by intelligent design, or are we here by molecular chance? No greater issue exists than the issue of creation. If there is a God, and if the Bible is the word of God, then man is eternally accountable to a creator. However, if God does not exist, then man has no higher authority than man (either man the individual, or man collectively as a society). Moreover, there certainly is no eternal accountability.

Think of the implications. More than one philosopher has been credited with saying, “If God does not exist, then everything is permitted” (Fyodor Dostoyevsky in the novel The Brothers Karamazov, Jean Paul Sartre). Aldus Huxley admitted “I had motives for not wanting the world to have meaning; consequently I assumed it had none . . . the philosophy of meaninglessness was essentially an instrument of liberation . . . liberation form a certain system of morality. We objected to the morality because it interfered with our sexual freedom” (Bert Thompson, Rock-Solid Faith: How To Build It, pp 81-82, quoting Confessions of a Professed Atheist, Report: Perspective on the News, 3:15, June).

Think of the implications historically. (a) Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Germany (1933-1945) – It is estimated that 11 million people were murdered in the Holocaust, including 6 million Jews (two-thirds of Europe ’s Jewish population). This does not count the tens-of-millions who dies in the war. What law did the Nazi’s violate? Their own? No. British/American law? No. They were never under such. International tolerance? Okay, but understand that all such is, is the collective will of the international communities. What if the international communities one day tolerated such behavior? Would such then be morally acceptable behavior? (b) The Tuskegee Experiments (1932-1972) – 399 poor black men from Macon County , Alabama had a test performed on them. They had syphilis, but were not told of such. They were denied available antibiotics to treat such. They were told that they had “bad blood”. They were treated as guinea pigs in a government experiment. They were promised free medical care, meals, and burial insurance. Is there anything inherently morally wrong with such? If each man is his own moral standard, then no. Richard Dawkins acknowledged, “My own feeling is that a human society based simply on the gene’s law of the universal ruthlessness would be a very nasty society in which to live. But unfortunately, however much we may deplore something; it does not stop it being true” (Bert Thompson, Rock-Solid Faith: How To Build It, p 165, quoting from The Selfish Gene, pp. 2-3).

Richard Dawkins was correct in his last sentence. So, why should I believe?

The Cosmological Argument

This argument starts with the existence of the cosmos (from the Greek “Kosmos” meaning order, i.e. the material universe). It reasons that for every material effect, there must be an adequate cause.

There are only three possible options for the origin of the cosmos: (1) It is eternal. (2) It sprang from nothing. (3) It was created.

(1) Is it eternal? No. Robert Jastrow admitted, “modern science denies an eternal existence to the universe, either in the past or in the future” (Bert Thompson and Wayne Jackson, the Case for the Existence of God, pp. 6-7, quoting from Until the Sun Dies, pp. 19, 30 by Jastrow). The First Law of Thermodynamics indicates that the total of all energy and matter in the universe is fixed. While matter may be converted to energy and energy to matter – either matter or energy is being created or destroyed. The Second Law of Thermodynamics indicates that the universe is running down. “The universe as a whole is steadily moving toward a state of randomness” (Britannica 1979 Vol. 10, p. 894). Energy is becoming less available for use. It is as if this cosmos was wound up like a clock, but is now running down. These two laws (the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics) suggest a beginning.

(2) Did it spring from nothing? It should be considered self-evident that something cannot come from nothing. Dr. George E. Davis, a physicist has said, “No material thing can create itself” (Bert Thompson and Wayne Jackson, A Study Course in Christian Evidences, p. 19). Hebrews 3:4 reads, “Every house is built by someone, but He who built all things is God.”

There is an issue beyond the origin of matter, and that issue is the origin of life. There are only three options: (a) Life is eternal. No scientist, to my knowledge, holds this position. (b) Life arose from non-living matter. The idea of “Spontaneous Generation” has no support. Many used to believe in “spontaneous generation”. However, this thinking was defeated centuries ago. Francesco Redi (1626-1697), an Italian physician did an experiment. He took three jars and placed meat and fish in them. One jar he left open. One jar he covered with a mesh net. One jar he sealed. Only the open jar developed maggots (Andrew Dickson White, History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, p. 42). This and other such experiments thwarted man’s belief in “spontaneous generation”. Those who choose to believe in such do so without any evidence. Martin Moe in Science Digest, December 1981, wrote “A century of sensational discoveries in the biological sciences has taught us that life arises only from life” (Bert Thompson, the Scientific Case for Creation, p. 77). (c) It was created. This seems the only option left.

(3) Was it created? This seems the only option left.

The Teleological Argument

This argument is of design (from Greek “telos” meaning end, purpose, design). If there is design, then there must have been a designer.

Let us notice a few things from the human body which cry out design.

(1) The eye cries out design. Robert Jastrow has written, “the eye appears to have been designed; no designer of telescopes could have done better” (Wayne Jackson, Human Body: Accident or Design? P. 56 quoting The Enchanted Loom: Mind in the Universe pp. 96-97). In truth, man in all his intelligence has not matched the abilities of the human eye. Charles Darwin admitted, “To suppose that the eye with its inimitable (uncompared B.H.) contrivances (planning B.H.) for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could be formed by natural selection, seems I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree . . . it is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye with a telescope. We know that this instrument has been perfected by long-continued efforts of the highest human intellects . . .” (The Origin of Species, pp. 227, 231).

(2) The brain cries out design. Isaac Asimov called the brain “the most complex and orderly arrangement of matter in the universe” (Wayne Jackson, Human Body, p. 50 quoting the Smithsonian Institute Journal, June 1970, p. 10). Carl Sagan said of the information content of the human brain, “if written out in English . . . that information would fill twenty million volumes, as many as the world’s largest libraries” (ibid, quoting Broca’s Brain by Sagan, p. 275). If a computer was created by intelligence, how could we believe that the brain simply happened?

(3) The nervous system cries out design. Britannica says “transmission of information within the nervous system is more complex than the largest telephone exchanges” (1989 Vol. 2, p. 226).

(4) The kidneys cry out design. Some people require dialysis to survive. This requires time, hours each week. This requires money, tens of thousands of dollars each year. Ask these folks if they would trade working kidneys for a dialysis machine.

(5) Man’s intellect is able to design certain replacement body parts. There are replacement knees, prosthetic hands, feet and limbs. There are hearing aids which enhance a damaged ear’s ability to hear. However, which of these can perform all the functions of the original?

The human body originating by chance has been compared to a tornado sweeping through a junk yard and the result being a fully functional 747 jet. It has also been compared to an explosion at a print shop which results in an unabridged dictionary. The human body cries out design.

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Different Types of Sin

Posted on November 24, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

“Sin is sin,” we are sometimes told. Thus, it is concluded that all sins should be dealt with the same way.

But is this true? I think not. Let’s notice:

1. Personal, Private Matters between Two Brethren (Matthew 18:15-17).

Step one – Go reason with your brother. Communication with him, not gossip to others, is what is needed. The motive in approaching him should not be to “let him have it,” but “gain your brother”.

Step two – Visit with one or two others. This accomplishes a few things: it (a) demonstrates to the offender the seriousness of the situation; (b) provides witnesses to what is said; (c) provides ideally impartial arbitrators; (d) helps establish the facts; and (e) provides another opportunity for reconciliation.

Step three – The matter is set forth before the church, if, and only if, sin has been determined and the offender does not confess his wrongs and repent. The church should now involve itself in reasoning with the brother.

Step four – Christian fellowship ceases until repentance occurs. Many souls could be saved if we did things God’s way.

2. General Disorderliness (2 Thessalonians 3).

Step one – They had received initial teaching on the matter (2 Thessalonians 3:10).

Step two – Some time later, they were again instructed on the matter (1 Thessalonians 4:11-12).

Step three – The brethren were urged to get involved in this warning (1 Thessalonians 5:14).

Step four – Fellowship is withdrawn (2 Thessalonians 3:6, 10, 12).

Note: This did not drag on for years and years.

3. A Divisive Person (Titus 3:10).

Step one – warn.

Step two – warn.

Step three – reject.

Note: This is dealt with in fewer steps. Anyone dividing brethren unnecessarily, and sowing discord needs swift action. Delay could destroy the local church.

4. Shocking/Egregious Sin (1 Corinthians 5).

One step – “deliver such a one to Satan…. I have written to you not to keep company” (1 Corinthians 5:5, 11). This does not involve multiple steps. Immediate action was needed. Even the non-Christian did not commonly so behave (1 Corinthians 5:1-2). This situation could (a) bring reproach upon the whole church; (b) corrupt the church (1 Corinthians 5:6-7).

5. False Teachers (Romans 16:17; 1 Timothy 6:3-5; 2 John 9-11).

One step – “note and avoid” (Romans 16:17), “from such withdraw” (1 Timothy 6:5); “do not receive him into your house nor greet him” (2 John 10). There are not multiple steps. Immediate action is needed. False teachers should not be tolerated, or in any way encouraged.

I conclude, from these different passages, that while all sin is serious, not all sin is to be handled in the same manner. May God give us wisdom in this area.

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Thanksgiving

Posted on November 21, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

A true Christian should not need the government to set aside one day per year as “Thanksgiving Day” to remember to be thankful.  In fact, our lives should exude thankfulness and should be characterized by thanksgiving.  1 Thessalonians 5:18, “In everything give thanks: for this is the will of God…”  Colossians 3:15 instructs “…be ye thankful.”

What are some things for which a Christian should be thankful?

  1. We should be thankful for the food we eat (1 Timothy 4:4-5).
  2. We should be thankful for faithful brethren (Eph. 1:15-16; Phil. 1:3-8; Col. 1:3-4; 3:12-   15; 1  Thes. 1:2- 3; 2 Thes. 1:3-4; Rom. 1:8; 16:3-4; 2 Tim. 1:3-5).
  3. We should be thankful for our families (Psalm 127:3; Prov. 17:7; 18:22).
  4. We should be thankful for the pattern that God has given us to live within, and by which to conduct our lives (Col. 2:6-7).  This pattern, if followed, will make us better husbands, wives, sons, daughters, neighbors, friends, employers, and employees.
  5. We should be thankful that God has saved us.  1 Cor. 15:57 reads, “thanks unto the Father which giveth us victory through our Lord Jesus Christ.”  Col. 1:12-14 “… thanks  unto the Father which hath made us meet to be partakers of the inheritance of the saints in light; who hath
    delivered us from  the power of darkness, and hath translated us  into the kingdom of his dear Son: “In whom we have redemption through His blood, even the forgiveness of sins.”
  6. We should be thankful for what Jesus has allowed us to become (cf. 1 Tim. 1:12).  He took four fishermen, Peter, James, John and Andrew and made them “fishers of men” (Matt. 4:19).  He took Paul, the chief of sinners (1 Tim. 1:15), and transformed him into an apostle.  He is not ashamed to call us brethren (Heb. 2:11)!

Who should be thanked?

The answer is God.  Consider:  1. It is noteworthy that when Paul considered the good done by brethren, he thanked God (Phil. 1:3-5; 2:13-14; Col. 1:3-4; 1 Thes. 1:2-3; 2:13; 2 Cor. 9:10-15).  This is the case for it is God that motivates man to do the good he does (Phil. 2:13 cf. 1 Thes. 2:13; 2 Cor. 8:16).  2.  It is God that should be thanked for our physical blessing, such as our food (1 Tim. 4:4-5; Matt. 15:36 cf. Mark 8:6; Matt. 14:19 cf. Mark 6:41). In fact, we owe Him thanks for our very existence. The Psalmist instructs, “Make a joyful noise unto the LORD all ye lands. Serve the LORD with gladness: come before his presence with singing. Know ye that the LORD he is God: it is he that hath made us and not we ourselves; we are his people and the sheep of his pasture” (Ps. 100:1-3). In truth, “Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of lights, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow of turning” (Jam.1:17).  3. Clearly, it is He from whom all spiritual blessings flow. “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heavenly places in Christ” (Eph. 1:3). “Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, which according to his abundant mercy hath begotten us again to a lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. To an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for you” (1Pet. 1:3-4). Conclusion: It is God, Who should be thanked.

May we always be thankful.  As for me and my house, we cease not to be thankful for you!

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Careful With The Lines

Posted on November 14, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

Must you and I see each and every Bible passage exactly alike for us to fellowship one another?  It has been my experience, that some are ready to contend over the smallest, most trivial of things.  They are ready to draw lines of fellowship over anything that anyone differs with them over.

I have been disturbed over two extremes among us.  One extreme is the congregation or brother that will not recognize what God says, and will fellowship those who by God’s standard we should not.  This is a most common problem in the church today.  The other extreme is the congregation or brother who is ready to draw lines very quickly and sharply over things God hasn’t.

Let us examine some commonly used, but faulty standards of judgment, and find some general guidelines, from the Bible itself to help us determine when to draw lines of fellowship.  Also, let us consider some things that both the Bible, and common sense tells us that we can differ over without division.

 Faulty Standards

Public Opinion:  We hear much said today about public opinion polls in politics.  We live in a Constitutional Republic that some therefore, seem to think, that whatever the majority wants is what should happen.  But, let me remind you that approximately 1,970 years ago, the public opinion poll called for the release of Barabas and the execution of Jesus (Luke 23:18).  Now, who could possibly say that public opinion is an adequate standard of judgment?

Feelings:  For some, the answer to right or wrong, or to which course of action to take is solely dependent upon their feelings.  Need we be reminded, that Saul “thought… that (he-B.H.) ought to do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth” (Acts 26:9).  Clearly, such is an inadequate standard to determine fellowship.

Traditions: Read Matthew 12:1-2.  Brethren understand that in essence what they were calling Jesus and His disciples was a “liberal.”  The accused His disciples of violating the law.  But, they did no such thing.  They were not in violation of the Sabbath law (Exodus 12:16).  Nor, were they in violation of the owner’s property (Leviticus 19:9-10; 23:22; Deuteronomy 23:34; 24:19-21).  They had not violated God’s law.  The had only violated these Pharisee’s tradition, which they had added to God’s law.  Let us be careful to make sure that we only bind what God has already bound.

Hearsay:  Some draw lines of fellowship over the most flimsy of evidence.  In private matters, they rely upon “he said, she said.”  How easy it is for accusations to be hurled at those in leadership capacities in the Lord’s church.  Often these accusations are accepted as “Gospel truth” without any substantial proof.  The Bible demands more.  We are instructed to “Prove all things; hold fast to that which is good” (1 Thessalonians 5:21).  In private matters there must be more than one witness to the facts before it becomes a church fellowship matter (Matthew 18:15-17).  Knowing that leaders are such an easy target, and knowing that there are always some seeking to discredit them, the Holy Spirit warned, “Against an elder receive not an accusation, but before two or three witnesses… lay hands suddenly on no man, neither be partaker of other men’s sins” (2 Timothy 5:19, 21).

Association:  I understand that one can tell a lot about a man by looking to see whom his close friends are.  I also understand that who we keep friends with can influence our behavior (Proverbs 22:24-25; 27:17; 1 Corinthians 15:33, etc.).  Moreover, I understand that we should not be fellowshipping those whom God doesn’t (1 Corinthians 5:11; Romans 16:17; Titus 3:10; 2 John 9-11).  However, there are some that are ready to write another off as apostate just because he was seen with someone of questionable (or worse) character.  Read Luke 15:1-7 and Matthew 9:9-12.  Now, it should be understood that Jesus wasn’t here fellowshipping error, or encouraging, or following after sin, nor was He supporting false teaching (Ephesians 5:11).  He was with them to teach them.  We must be very careful with this “guilt by association” attitude.  Let us be sure we know what is going on before we condemn by association.

Imputing Motives:  The truth is, though we may suspect, it is most difficult – if not impossible, to truly know motives, sincerity, and the intent of another’s heart (1 Corinthians 2:11).  Could those at Corinth really judge Paul’s motives (1 Corinthians 9:16-18)?  Of course not.  But, Paul did say the Lord “will make manifest the counsels of the heart…”  When the Day of Judgment comes (1 Corinthians 4:5).  When dealing with others, let us stay with the facts of action; let us not assign wrongful motives, or a lack of sincerity, unless they choose to tell us directly of their motives, intent or sincerity.

The Party Spirit:  I’ve met folks over time who when asked about a doctrinal issue say: “What does brother so-and-so say?” and then they say, after you’ve told them brother so-and-so’s position, “Well, if he holds that position, I guess I do as well.”  Brethren, any of us can err!  Even Peter did, and led away others with him (Galatians 2:11-14).  Let us remember, “when truth is in question, respect of persons is inadmissible.”  Let us, as those noble Bereans, determine right from wrong by “searching the Scriptures” (Acts 17:11).

General Guidelines

General Rule #1:  When one puts into practice that which is contrary to doctrinal truth it becomes a fellowship matter.  Brethren, there are a lot of things that a person might privately hold and not practice.  For instance, a person might hold that it is theoretically permissible to drink beer, smoke pot,  have an abortion, and worship with mechanical instruments and a host of other things, that, of course, the Bible condemns.  Should his personal, privately held views (which he does not practice, or teach to others) divide us?  I do not, in the Scriptures, find fellowship being severed for personal private belief.  But, I do find it being severed over sinful, unrepented of, practices.

2 Thessalonians 3:6 commands that fellowship be severed from “every brother that walketh disorderly…”  The term “walketh” signifies not personal views, but wrongful actions in practice.  2 Thessalonians 3:14 says, “If any man obey not our word by this epistle, note that man, and have no company with him.”  Again, the words “obey not” clearly signifies that it is the wrongful practice that here-in breaks precious fellowship.  This is not to say that thoughts are not important, for they are.  But, as a general rule something becomes a fellowship matter when put into practice. Note: Different types of sins are to be handled with different steps, e.g. private matters between brethren(Mt 18), public egregious sins(1 Cor 5), general disorderliness(1,2 Thes), heretics(Tit 3), false teachers(Rom 16; 2 Jn). These things we will deal with in a separate writing.

However, there are exceptions.  There are some things, which simply must be believed for us to be one, and for fellowship to be maintained.  Concerning God, we are told that we, “must believe that He is, and that He is a rewarder of them that diligently seek Him” (Hebrews 11:6).  Without such faith, “it is impossible to please Him” (Hebrews 11:6).  Jesus said in John 8:24, “If ye believe not that I am He, ye shall die in your sins.”  Yes, it matters what we believe about some things.  In fact, Jesus built His church upon certain truths that must be accepted (Matthew. 16:15-18; cf. Romans 10:10; Acts 8:37).  If one privately and quietly believed not and such came to my attention, yes, such would become a fellowship matter.

But my point is this: though there are exceptions pointed out by the Bible itself, as a general rule a belief becomes fellowship issue when put into action.

General Rule #2:  When one begins to teach that which is contrary to sound doctrine, that is, when one begins to teach (publicly or privately) that which could cost another his soul, it becomes a matter of fellowship.  The Bible instructs that we are to “speak” the things which become sound doctrine (Titus 2:1; cf. 1 Timothy 1:10;  2 Timothy 1:13-14).  Paul called the names of men who preached contrary things (2 Timothy 2:16-18).  Romans 16:17 says, “mark them, which causes divisions and offenses contrary to the doctrine, which ye have learned; and avoid them.”  Galatians 1:9 says, “if any man preach any other gospel unto you… let him be accursed.”  2 John 10-11 reads, “If there come any unto you, and bring not this doctrine, receive him not into your house, neither bid him God speed: for he that biddeth God speed is partaker of his evil deeds.”  From these passages, understand that though it may be possible to quietly and privately hold certain beliefs, when one starts teaching or proclaiming those beliefs which are contrary to sound doctrine, then such does become a fellowship matter.

James 3:1 warns in the NKJV: “Let not many of you become teachers knowing that we shall receive a stricter judgment.”  These word are set forth to warn us of the seriousness of the role of a Bible teacher.  A teacher’s word can subvert whole houses (Titus 1:9-11).  Moreover, Matthew 18:6 (NKJV) warns, “whoever causes one of these little ones who believes in Me to sin, it would be better for him if a millstone were hung around his neck, and he were drowned in the depths of the sea.”  Bible class teachers, before we present something as serious as God’s truth, we had better make sure that it is His truth and not our opinion.  This is serious, serious business.  Souls are at stake, including our own.

Generic Commands & Expedience

Brother Perry Cotham has well said, “under generic commands man has liberty and there may be diversity in practice.”  What is a generic command?  A generic command would be, for instance, Mark 16:15.  Jesus said, “Go ye into all the world…”  Watch the fact that he did not tell man how to go.  He left the mode of travel up to man.  For this reason, Paul did not do anything wrong when he went by ship upon the water (Acts 16:11-12; 20:1-3).  Nor did he sin by walking (Acts 20:13).  Neither did Philip sin when he rode in the chariot (Acts 8).  They were well within their rights in these matters.  Another example is where God commands that a collection be taken up each “first day of the week” (1 Corinthians 16:1-2).  Notice that He has given us liberty as to what to put the collection in.  If, therefore, congregation “A” decides to use a silver tray, and congregation “B” chooses to use a brown paper bag, both are still obedient to God and able to maintain fellowship.  When God has not specified “how” or “when” something is to be done, there is room for opinion.

We may disagree as to what is the most expedient course.  We may have a very strong opinion as to what would be best, but these are not what should divide us.  By the way, if your opinion in these areas of expediency differs with your overseers – yield yourself to their decisions.

Differing over the Exact Meaning of a Passage

What if you and I don’t see eye to eye on a certain passage of Scripture?  For example, in 1 Thessalonians 4:4 the term “vessel” is used.  Some teach that this word “vessel” is being used to refer to a wife.  That is, much like 1 Corinthians 7:2 where it is said that Paul is saying that in order to avoid fornication each should have his own wife.  I disagree with this interpretation.  I believe for reasons I’ll not go into at this time,  that what Paul is saying is that we each should maintain control over our own body (cf. 1 Corinthians 7:9).  I believe that the term “vessel” is being used for one’s own physical body.  But, the question remains – would I withdraw myself  from a brother who taught differently?  Would I brand him a false teacher because he said the term “vessel” referred to the wife and not to one’s own body?  The answer is – I would not.

Remember the general rules?  Though I may reason with the teacher, and though I may reject his view, I would not withdraw myself, because what he teaches is taught elsewhere in Scripture.  Furthermore, one would not be practicing anything wrong, or failing to practice what he should, by following his teaching.  Another example of varying opinions is: what does the term “body” signify in 1 Corinthians 6:18?  Brethren, we can and should press our points in Bible study.  But unless someone is teaching something, if followed, would jeopardize the soul, then let us not divide.

Akin to the above are those items which actually do not apply to us today.  I have heard of brethren nearly dividing over whether those under John’s baptism had to be rebaptized.  I have a definitive view on this, however, which of us ever lived under John’s baptism?  Why then should this divide us?  I have heard of brethren dividing over what law people were under between Christ’s death and Pentecost.  Again, which of us lived during this period of time?  Why then should we divide over it?

This article is simply intended to calmly consider the fact that every difference is NOT a fellowship issue.  It is intended to caution us not to be too hasty in jumping the gun without closely examining some basic Bible teaching in the area of fellowship first.

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Fifteen Periods of Bible History

Posted on November 11, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

It is not uncommon for Bible readers to get confused over the Biblical time-line. How close in time were certain events? Were these personalities contemporary? How long before Christ was that?

The Bible can be outlined in fifteen periods of history. If one can memorize these periods, one will have a very valuable tool for Bible study. Note: I claim no originality for these 15 periods. Other men have taught such including: Roy Deaver, Don Simpson and Andy Kiser.

1. Antediluvian (Before Flood) Period

Events Scripture Date
From – creation Gen. 1:1-8:12 From – 4005 B.C. 
To – flood   To      – 2349 B.C.  /   1656 A.M.

 *Note: B.C. = Before Christ, A.M. = Anno Mundi (The year of the World)

2. Postdiluvian (After Flood) Period

Events Scripture Date
From – flood Gen. 8:13-11:26 From – 2349 B.C.
To – call of Abram   To       – 1921 B.C.  / 2084 A.M.

3. Patriarchal (Abram, Isaac, Jacob) Period

Events Scripture Date
From – call of Abram Gen. 11:26-46:7 From – 1921 B.C.
To – descent into Egypt The book of Job To      – 1706 B.C.  /  2299   A.M.

4. Egyptian Period   

Events Scripture Date
From – descent into Egypt Gen. 46:8-Ex. 14:31 From –1706 B.C. 
To – crossing of Red Sea   To      – 1491 B.C.  /  2514 A.M.

Note: Many believe that the children of Israel were in Egypt 430 years. However, the 430 years seems to refer to the entire sojourn in Canaan and Egypt (Galatians 3:16-17). It was 215 years from Haran to Egypt (Genesis 12:4 cf. 21:5 cf 25:26 cf. 47:8-9). The 215 year period in Egypt agrees with Josephus (Ant. 2:318). He stated that the Israelites left Egypt “430 years after the coming of our forefather Abraham to Canaan, Jacob’s migration to Egypt having taken place 215 years later.”

5. Wilderness Wandering Period

Events Scripture Date
From – crossing of Red Sea Ex. 15:1-Josh. 3:17 From – 1491 B.C.
    To       – 1450 B.C.   /  2555 A.M.

6. Conquest Period

Events Scripture Date
From- crossing of Jordan River Joshua 4:1- Judges 3:9 From- 1450 B.C.
To: appointment of Othneil (first of the judges)   To- 1430 B.C.     /     2575 A.M.

Note: The actual conquest itself seems to have taken seven years (Joshua 11:23; 14:7, 10 cf. Deuteronomy 2:14).

7. Judges (deliverers) Period

Events Scripture Date
From- appointment of Othneil Judges 3:10- 1 Samuel 10:17 (includes the book of Ruth) From- 1430 B.C.
To- appointment of Saul (first of the Kings)   To- 1095 B.C.     /     2910 A.M.

Note: Some think the period of Judges lasted 450 years based on Acts 13:20 (KJV). However, this seems to be a mistake. It was 480 years “after the children of Israel came out of Egypt” that one arrives at “the fourth year of Solomon” (1 Kings 6:1). This means that Saul became King 356/357 years after either the Exodus’ start or the Exodus’ completion (crossing of Jordan River). See 1 Kings 6:1 cf. Acts 13:21; cf. 2 Samuel 5:4-5; cf. 1 Kings 2:11; cf. 1 Kings 11:42; 2 Chronicles 9 :30.

How should one understand Acts 13:20? (1) Some manuscripts read in such a way that Acts 13:20 includes the events of Acts 13:17-19. That is: From Isaac through the conquest. This position is reflected in the ASV, NIV, NASB, and ESV. (2) There is a linguistic consideration. The phrase “450 years” is in the dative case, while “40 years,” used twice (v. 18, 21), is in the accusative. “The dative implies point of time, not duration… It indicates that at this point in the narrative, 450 years had elapsed” [Kyle Butt, “The Period of the Judges” (www.apologeticspress.org). Also recommended James Jordan “Puzzling the Era of the Judges” (www.reformed-theology.org)].

Note: A good outline of the reoccurring cycle which appears in the book of Judges is –

  1.   Sin or relapse
  2.   Servitude or retribution
  3.   Supplication or resolve
  4.   Salvation or rescue
  5.   Silence or rest 

8. United Kingdom (Saul, David, Solomon’s) Period

Event Scripture Date
From- appointment of Saul 1 Samuel 11:1- 1 Kings 11:43; 1 Chron. 1:1- 2 Chron. 9:31;  From- 1095 B.C.
To- division under Jeroboam Also includes most of the books of Psalms and Proverbs, and the entire book of Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon To- 975 B.C.     /     3030 A.M.

9. Divided Kingdom

Event Scripture Date
From- division of Kingdom into Judah (South) and Israel (North) 1 Kings 12:1-2 Kings 17:41; 2 Chron. 10:1-28: 27 From- 975 B.C.
To- fall of Samaria (capital of Israel) Also includes the books of Isaiah, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Jonah, Micah To- 721 B.C.     /     3284A.M.

Note: This period also includes the books of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Jonah, and Micah. These prophets can be viewed this way:

  1. To Israel: Hosea, Amos
  2. To Judah: Isaiah, Joel, Micah
  3. To Others: Jonah

Note: Judah consisted of:            

  1. Much of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Kings 12:21; 2 Chronicles 11:1-ff, 23). Some of the tribe of Benjamin became a part of Israel e.g. Bethel is within Benjamin (cf. 1 Kings 12:25-33)
  2. Judah, and no doubt Simeon since Simeon was in the territory, was within the tribe of Judah (Joshua 19:1-9).
  3. Most of the Priests/ Levites (2 Chronicles 11:13-14)

Certain faithful ones from various tribes joined themselves to Judah (2 Chron. 11:13-17 cf. 15:9-10). 

Note: Israel had 9 dynasties and a total of 19 kings, not one was good.

Note:  Israel was invaded 4 times by Assyria leading up to its fall.

  1.  2 Kings 15:16-20        ?
  2.  2 Kings 15:27-29        734/733 B.C.
  3.  1 Chron. 5:6. 23-26    ?
  4.  2 Kings 17:3-ff             722/721 B.C.

10. Judah Alone Period.    

Events Scripture Date
From – Fall of Israel(Northern Kingdom) 2 Kings 18:1–25:30; 2 Chr. 29:1–36:31 From – 721 B.C.     
To – Fall of Jerusalem(capital of Judah) Also includes the books of Jeremiah, Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah. To –  586 B.C.   /    3419 A.M.                                                                

 Note: The prophets can be viewed this way:

  1.   To Judah: Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Zephaniah.
  2.   To Others: Obadiah, Nahum

Note: Judah had 1 dynasty and a total of 19 kings in its history [counting from Rehoboam, and not counting Athaliah’s usurpation (2 Kings 11:1-ff; 2 Chronicles 22:10-ff)].

*4 kings were good.

  1.  The 3rd: Asa (1 Kings 5:8-14; 2 Chronicles 14:1-16:14).
  2.  The 4th: Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:41-50; 2 Chronicles 17:1-20:37).
  3.  The 12th: Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:1-20:21; 2 Chronicles 29:1-32:33; Isaiah 36:1–39:8).
  4.  The 15th: Josiah (2 Kings 22:1-23:30; 2 Chronicles 34:1-35:27).

*4 kings were okay or of mixed review.

  1.  The 7th: Jehoash/Joash (2 Kings 11:1-12:21; 2 Chr. 23:16-24:27).
  2.  The 8th: Amaziah (2 Kings 14:1-20; 2 Chr. 25:1-28).
  3.  The 9th: Azariah (2 Kings 15:1-7; 2 Chr. 26:1-23).
  4.  The 10th: Jotham (1 Kings 15:32-38; 2 Chr. 27:1-9).

*The rest were not good.

Note: Medo-Babylon replaced Assyria as the world power, conquering  Assyria in 612 B.C.

Note: The Babylonians invaded Judah 3 times leading up to the fall of Jerusalem.

(1) 606 B.C.                  2 Kings 24:1;  2 Chronicles 36:5-7;  Daniel 1:1-4

*This is when Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah were taken among the                   spoils (Daniel 1:1-ff).

        *The temple vessels were looted and taken to Babylon (2 Chronicles 36:7; Daniel 1:2).

(2)   597/596 B.C.      2 Kings 24:10;  2 Chronicles 36:9-10; Ezekiel 1:12; cf. 8:1; 20:1; 24:1;

26:1; 29:1; 29:17;  30:20; 31:1; 32:1; 33:21; 40:1

*Jehoiachin/Coniah/Jeconiah was taken captive (2 Kings 24:14-16; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10).

*More vessels of the temple are located (2 Chronicles 36:10).

*This was also the time Ezekiel was carried away (Ezekiel 1:1-3; cf. 33:21; 40:1).

*Also Esther’s relatives (Esther 2:5-6).

(3) 586 B.C.  2 Kings 24:17-25:30; 2 Chronicles 36:11-21; Jeremiah 39:1-40:6

*Jerusalem falls, the temple is looted (2 Chronicles 36:18),

and destroyed (2 Kings   25:9; 2 Chronicles 36:19).

*All but the poor are carried away (Jeremiah 39:10; 40:7; 52:16; 2 Kings 24:14; 25:12).

11. Captivity Period.

Events Scripture Date
From –  Fall of Judah(Southern Kingdom) 2 Chr. 36:22 – Ezra 1:4 From – 586 B.C.
To – Return home by decree of Cyrus Also includes the books of Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. To –      536 B.C.  /   3469 A.M.

Note: Medo-Persia replaced Babylon as the world power, conquering Babylon in 539 B.C.

Note: When Babylon fell, Belshazzar was throwing a drunken feast using the vessels out of the Jerusalem temple (Daniel 1:2; cf. 5:1-4).

12. Restoration Period.

Events Scripture Date
From – First wave of returnees Ezra 1:1 – Nehemiah 13:31 From – 536 B.C.
To – Completion of Nehemiah’s restoration and end of O.T. canon Also includes: Esther (483-474 B.C.) which occurs in a 58 year gap between Ezra 6 (516 B.C.) and Ezra 7 (458 B.C.) Additionally, includes the books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. To –      432 B.C.  /    3573 A.M.

Note: There were 3 returns.

(1) Zerubbabel led about 50,000 Israelites home in 536 B.C.

(Ezra 1:1-6:22; Also included Haggai and Zachariah; see also Nehemiah 7:6-ff; 12:1-26).

*This return occurred 70 years after the first carrying away cf. Jeremiah 29:1-10.

*Restoration and rebuilding of houses and the temple occurred during this time.

*The temple was completed and dedicated in 516 B.C. which is 70 years after

the temple’s destruction cf. 2 Chronicles 36:17-23.

Note: Some chose not to return, but to continue to reside in Persia (Esther 2:18-23; Daniel 2:46-49; cf. 6:1-ff; cf. 10:1-ff; Nehemiah 2:1). Some who remained, financially supported those returning in the restoration effort (Ezra 1:4-7).

Note: Cyrus returned the temple vessels that had been taken by Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1:2; cf. 5:1-4; cf. Ezra 1:7-ff; 5:14).

(2) Ezra the priest led about 7,000 Israelites home in 458/457 B.C. (Ezra 7:1-10:44).

Note: Ezra’s work was spiritual and religious restoration.

(3) Nehemiah returned in 445/444 B.C. (Nehemiah 1:1-13:31; Also includes Malachi).

Note: He led an effort to rebuild the city walls of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 1:1-6:19).

Note: Nehemiah served as governor of the land, subject to Persia, for 12 years

(Nehemiah 5:14-16).

Note: During this time, Ezra continued to do his work (Neh. 8:1-10:39). The people during this time had the following spiritual difficulties – (a) lethargy, materialism, and selfishness (the book of Malachi); (b) unauthorized marriages (Ezra 9-10; Nehemiah 13; Malachi 2:10-f)

13. Prophetic Silence Period.

Events Scripture Date
From – Completion of O.T. canon 1. Prophetically addressed in Daniel 2, 7, 8, 11 From – 432 B.C. 
To – Angel of Lord appearing to Zacharias foretelling the birth of John 2. Extra Biblical source – 1 + 2 + 3 Maccabee; Josephus To      –         5 B.C.   /    4000 A.M.

Note: Some have referred to this period as the “Inter-Testament Period”. This could be misleading. Israelites were still under the old covenant at this time.

Note: This period can be sub-divided:

(1) Persian rule: 539-332 B.C.

*The Jews had some difficulty in this period, as is recorded in Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther.  However, overall this seems to have been a relatively peaceful time.

(2) Macedonian/Grecian rule: 332-167 B.C.

(a) Alexander: 332-323 B.C.  *Relative peace.

(b) Ptolemy (Egypt): 323-204 B.C.  *Relative peace.

*It was during this time that the Septuagint (LXX, the Greek translation of the

Hebrew Bible) was produced.

(c) Seleucid (Syria): 204-167 B.C.

*These were extremely difficult times. These were the days of Antiochus IV.

(3) Maccabees’ revolt: 167-63 B.C.

*During this time the Jews revolted against Seleucid rule. They purified the temple which had been desecrated  by Antiochus IV. They gained independence.

*It was during this time that the religious/political parties of Israel developed.

(1) The Sadducees were liberal Israelites that had been corrupted by Greek influence.

(a) They were the aristocracy of the Jews.

(b) They were deists, denying the supernatural.

(c) They were materialists, denying the resurrection (cf. Acts 23:6-10).

(2) The Pharisees were the reactionary party against liberalism. However, they bound upon people “a great many observations … which are not written in the laws of Moses” (Josephus, Ant. 13.10.6 quoted by Wayne Jackson in Background Bible Study).

(4) Roman rule: 63 B.C. –ff.

*Early under the Romans the Jews enjoyed peace. Jewish rebellion brought Jerusalem’s destruction, and the destruction of the nation in 70 A.D.

*The Herods rose to political power during this  time: (a) Antipater became governor of Judea in 47 B.C. (b) His son, Herod the Great, was declared by Rome “King of the Jews” in 40/39 B.C.

Note: Historical dates –

(1) Macedonia/Greece became the world power, defeating the Persians in battles between 333-331 B.C.

(2) Rome became the world power by defeating the last of the Greek rulers, Cleopatra (a Ptolemy), in 31 B.C. However, Rome’s rule over Israel began in 63 B.C.

14. The Coming of Immanuel.

Events Scripture Date
From – The angel of the Lord appearing to Zacharias Matthew; Mark; Luke; John From – 5 B.C. 
To – The establishment of the church on the Day of Pentecost Also includes: Acts 1; Acts 20:35; 1 Cor. 11:23-25; 1 Cor. 15:1-7 To    – 29/30 A.D.     / 4034 A.M.

 Note: Concerning the dates:

 (1) A.D. = Anno Domini meaning “the year of our Lord”.

 (2) Our calculations assume a 3 or 4-year adjustment in the Dionysius Exiguus time-line.

 (3) There is not a year zero counted. We have calculated having 1 A.D. follow 1 B.C.

Note: Jesus’ life can be divided this way:

 (1) Pre-birth to age 12,   Mt. 1:1-2:23; Lk. 1:1-2:52; Jn. 1:1-1:14

 (2) Preparation, Age 12-30,  Mt. 3:1-4:11; Mk. 1:1-1:13; Lk. 3:1-4:13; Jn. 1:15-1:34

 (3) Early Galilean Period,  Jn. 1:35-2:12

 (4) Early Judean Period, Mt. 4:12; Mk. 1:14; Lk. 4:14; Jn. 2:13-4:42

 (5) Great Galilean Period,  Mt. 4:13-18:35; Mk. 1:15-9:50; Lk. 4:15-9:50; Jn. 4:43-7:9

 (6) Late Judean/Perean Period,  Mt. 19:1-20:34; Mk. 10:1-10:52; Lk. 9:51-19:27; Jn. 7:10-12:11

(7) Final Days,  Mt. 21:1-27:66; Mk. 11:1-15:47; Lk. 19:28-23:56; Jn. 12:12-19:37; 1 Cor.

                                11:23-11:25

 (8) Resurrection to Ascension,  Mt. 28:1-28:20; Mk. 16:1-16:20; Lk. 24:1-24:53; Jn. 20:1-21:25; Acts 1:4-1:11; 1 Cor. 15:3-15:7

Note: Jesus’ ministry is thought to be about 3 ½ years.

  1. first Passover (John 2:13)
  2. second Passover (John 4:35 cf. 5:1)?
  3. third Passover ( John 6:4)
  4. fourth Passover (John 11:55) 

15. The Church Period.

Events Scripture Date
From – The pouring out of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost Acts 2:1 – Revelation 22:21 From – 29/30 A.D. 
To – Christ’s return (and on into eternity)   To      –    ?

 Note: The historical record of Acts can be outlined this way (Acts 1:8):

  1.  Jerusalem/Judea (Acts 1:1-8:3).
  2.  Samaria (Acts 8:4-11:18).
  3.  Beyond (Acts 11:19-28:31).

Note: Paul’s life in Acts.

 (1) Preconversion – Acts 7:54-8:3; 22:3-5; 26:4-5; 26:10-11; Also – Philippians 3:4-8; Galatians 1:14

 (2) Conversion – Acts 9:1-19; 22:6-16; 26:12-18

 (3) Early Work – Acts 9:20-30; 11:19-30; 12:25; Also – Galatians 1:15-24

(4) First Missionary Journey – Acts 13:1-14:28

 (5) Second Missionary Journey – Acts 15:40-18:22

*During this time the books of Galatians, and 1 and 2 Thessalonians were written (Galatians may have been written even earlier).           

(6) Third Missionary Journey – Acts 18:23-21:17

*During this time, the books of Romans and 1 and 2 Corinthians were written.

 (7) Arrested/Imprisoned – Acts 21:18-28:31

 *During this time the books of Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians and Philemon

                        were written.

 (8) Paul seems to have been released from roman imprisonment.

 *During this time 1 Timothy and Titus were written.

(9) Paul then was later rearrested.

*During this time 2 Timothy was written.

Note: Paul’s visits to Jerusalem

  1.  Acts 9:26-30; Galatians 1:17-21
  2.  Acts 11:29-30; 12:25
  3.  Acts 15:2-ff; Galatians 2:1-ff
  4.  Acts 18:21-22
  5.  Acts 21:15-23:30

Note: Information on epistles of Paul.

(1) Galatians

 *Written about 48-50 A.D., perhaps from Antioch.

 *Concerns Judaizing teachers/Paul defends his work and apostleship/Gentiles and O.T.

 (2) 1 + 2 Thessalonians.  *Written about 52 A.D. from Corinth.

*Concerns misunderstandings regarding Christ’s second coming/need for growth/the need for church discipline.

(3) 1 + 2 Corinthians.

*Written about 55-56 A.D. from Ephesus and Macedonia.

*Concerns a multitude of church problems/answers questions/use of spiritual gifts/need for love/addresses Judaizing teachers/need for discipline in church/Paul defends his work/ O.T. and N.T. compared.

 (4) Romans.  *Written about 56 A.D. from Corinth.

*Concerns the fact that the gospel is God’s power to save both Jew and Gentile/addresses Jew and Gentile relationship within the one body. 

(5) Ephesians/Philippians/Colossians.

*Written about 60-62 A.D. from Rome.

*Concerns God’s eternal purpose in Christ and the church/the supremacy of Christ over all/an appeal for unity and joy in Christ/Jew and Gentile relations within the one body/roles in life: husband-wife, parent-child, employer-employee, government-citizen/Christian relationship to O.T./Gnostic error.

(6) Philemon.   *Written about 60-61 A.D. from Rome.

 *Concerns an appeal for mercy on a run away slave whom Paul sent back.

(7) 1 + 2 Timothy/Titus.

*Written between 62-67 A.D. from Macedonia, Rome, and Macedonia.

 *Concerns instructions to preachers/organization of the church/need for endurance/Paul’s farewell.

Note: Information on other N.T. books –

(1) James.  *Thought to have been written in the 40’s A.D., likely from Jerusalem.

*Concerns practical Christian living/showing faith by works/the trials of life/the use of the tongue/how tempted.

(2) Hebrews.  *Thought to have been written in the 60’s A.D.

 *Concerns the superiority of Christ and the N.T./comparison of O.T. and N.T./the need for endurance and great faith.          

(3) 1 + 2 Peter.

*Thought to have been written in the 60’s A.D., from Babylon,  possibly Rome. 

*Concerns practical Christian living/Christian influence/the need for growth/enduring suffering/warning about false teachers.

(4) Jude.

*Thought to have been written in the late 60’s A.D.

*Concerns the need to contend for the faith/warning about false teachers.

(5) 1 + 2 + 3 John.

*The exact date of the writing is unclear. Some say that these were written prior to 70 A.D.  (as it is claimed all of the books of the N.T. were; cf. Micah 7:15). Others claim that these books were written in the 90’s A.D./they were probably written from Ephesus.

*Concerns Gnostic error/warnings against false teachers/the need for love/follow good men not church bullies.

(6) Revelation.

*Those who hold to a late date say that this was written about 96 A.D. However, there is an argument that can be made (and such seems correct to me) that this book was written about 68/69 A.D. (See: Revelation 17:10-12)/it was written from Isle of Patmos.

*Concerns the need for endurance and faithfulness/pictures Christ’s victory over His enemies/give man a glimpse into judgment and the hereafter.

 

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Lessons From the Ten Commandments

Posted on November 3, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

While it is true that the Ten Commandments are no longer in force, being a part of that system which was removed at the cross, still many of its points are again taught within the pages of the New Testament.

1.  No other Gods before Him (Exodus 20:3). 

Paul told those at Lystra, “Ye should turn from these vanities unto the Living God, which made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are therein” (Acts 14:15).  His teaching in Thessalonica motivated some to “turn to God from idols to serve the living and true God (1 Thessalonians 1:9).

Nothing and no one is to come before Him.  This includes: Father, Mother, wife, son, daughter, or even self (Matthew 10:37; Luke 14:26).

2.  No graven image for worship (Exodus 20:4-5a). 

This would include not only the worship of other gods under these images; but also, the worship of Jehovah God under some created image.  See Deuteronomy 4:15-ff.

Idolatry is condemned under the New Testament system as well (1 Corinthians 5:11; 1 John 5:21; Acts 15:29; 21:25).  Idolatry can take many forms. Even covetousness is a form of idolatry (Colossians 3:5).  If we place the wrong thing(s) first in our lives (examples: money, business, family, hobby, recreation, house, etc.),  we are committing idolatry.

3.  No taking of the Lord’s name in vain (Exodus 20:7).

Today we are still instructed to show respect towards his name (Matthew 6:9).

It is sad how flippant and profane some today use His name.  Let us make sure that we always show respect and awe when using His name.

4.  Keep the Sabbath (Exodus 20:8, 11). 

I find no equivalent in the pages of the New Testament.  The Sabbath commemorated Israel’s exodus out of Egypt (Deuteronomy 5:15).  It is not a part of the New Covenant (Colossians 2:16-17).

The first day of the week is not a Christian Sabbath; However, we are taught that we are to take time to worship (Acts 20:7; Hebrews 10:25).

Moreover, we are still taught that man needs to work (2 Thessalonians 3:10); and, needs rest (cf.  Mark 6:31).  We should never get so busy that we fail to rest, relax, and spend time together with our families.

5.  Honor father and mother (Exodus 20:12). 

This same teaching is a part of the New Testament (Ephesians 6:1-3; Colossians 3:20; 1 Timothy 5:3-4, 8, 16).  “Honor” includes obedient submission (Ephesians 6:1-2 cf. Colossians 3:20).  It also includes care and financial support when needed (1 Timothy 5:3-4, 8, 16).

6.  No killing (Exodus 20:13) /NKJV and NASB read “murder.”

God has authorized certain taking of human life (see Genesis 9:6; Romans 13:1-7; Acts 25:11).

But the unauthorized taking of life is forbidden under patriarchal times (Genesis 9:6), Mosaical times (Exodus 20:13), and today (Romans 13:8-10; 1 John 3:15).

7.  No adultery (Exodus 20:14). 

God created the institute of marriage.  He guards the sanctity of marriage with this legislation.

Adultery is wrong under the New Covenant system (Matthew 5:27-28; 19:9; Romans 13:8-10; Galatians 5:19-21; 1 Corinthians 6:9-ff).  And, yes we can control our behavior (1 Corinthians 6:18; 1 Thesalonians 4:3 -ff)!

8.  No stealing (Exodus 20:15).

Stealing hurts society as a whole.  It harms business, closing up stores, cutting into profits, and stifling investments.  It harms individuals wronged by it, and each one by higher prices.  It is condemned in the Ten Commandments.

It is also taught against today (Eph. 4:28; Rom. 13:8-10).  It is an attempt to bypass the work ethic taught by God (2 Thess. 3:10).  It also violates the Golden Rule (Matt. 7:12).

9.  No false witness (Exodus 20:10).

Fairness and justice demands a hearing of the truth.  The Old Law had extremely strict punishment for perjury (Deuteronomy 19:18-19).  The Old Law not only condemned false legal testimony but lying in general (Leviticus 19:11; Proverbs 6:16-19).

Today lying is also forbidden (Ephesians 4:25; Colossians 3:9; Revelation 21:8).  We are to conduct ourselves by The Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12 cf. Romans 13:8-10).

10.  No coveting (Exodus 20:17).

The term ‘covet’ simply means to have desire for something or someone.  It can be used in a good sense (cf. 1 Corinthians 12:31; 14:39); or, it can be used in a bad sense depending upon the object coveted and one’s right to that object.

The New Covenant also has much to say about wrongful desires (Matthew 5:27-28; Romans 13:8-10; 1 Corinthians 5:9-11; 6:9-10; Ephesians 5:3, 5; Hebrews 13:5).  We can sin in our minds (Matthew 5:20-22; 5:27-28).  We need to be careful with our thoughts (Philippians 4:8; Colossians 3:1-2).

An Illustration

The land called Texas has been under Spain, France, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the Confederate States, and the United States of America.  Six different flags!  I am sure that many of the laws we have today also existed under prior flags – murder, no doubt was illegal under each flag.  But murder is not illegal today in Texas because Spanish law is still on the books and in force today in the state of Texas.  It is in force because of what Texas legal system is today.

There clearly are similar teachings between the Ten Commandments and what the New Testament teaches.  However, we’re not bound to those because we’re under the Ten Commandments.  Instead, it is because we are under the New Covenant.

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Old Testament and New Testament

Posted on October 31, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

The purpose of this article is to help us to understand the relationship of man today with the Old Testament.

1.  To whom was the Old Testament given?

Folks, it was not given to everyone.  It was not a universal covenant for all of humanity.

It was given specifically to the children of Israel.  Read: Exodus 31:16-17; Deuteronomy 5:2-5; (on Fathers see Deuteronomy 4:37); Deuteronomy 5:15; Nehemiah 9:13-14.

2.  Why was the Old Testament given?

a. It was given to give civil laws for Israel to live by as a nation.  Read: Deuteronomy 22:8; Exodus 21:28-29; etc.

b. It was given to restrain men.  Read Galatians 3:19, 22-24.  Thayer on the word “tutor” says, “Among the Greeks and Romans the name was applied to trustworthy slaves who were charged with the duty of supervising the life and morals of boys belonging to the better class.  The boys were not allowed so much as to step out of the house without them before arriving at the age of manhood.”  The I.S.B.E. said of the word “tutor” this “lit. ‘child-leader’ a slave, to whom, in wealthy families the general oversight of a boy was committed.  It was his duty to accompany his charge to and from school, never to lose sight of him in public, to prevent association with objectionable companions, to inoculate moral lessons at every opportunity, etc.”  He protected the child.

c. It was given to educate.  The word “tutor” itself may not mean in a strict sense “to teach” or a “teacher.”  But the I.S.B.E. says that the “Tutor was to ‘inoculate’ moral lessons at every opportunity.”  The Old Testament educated man about sin (Romans 7:7) and pointed the people to a coming Messiah (or Christ), See: John 5:39; Luke 24:25-26.

But, just as a child never was intended to remain under the ‘child-leader’ or ‘child-guide’ (the ‘tutor’) forever; Even so, it was never God’s intention that man remain under the Old Testament forever (Galatians 3:25).

In truth, the Old Testament spoke of a coming New Testament.  Read Jeremiah 31:31-34 (cf. Hebrews 8:6-121, 13; Hebrews 10:3-4, 16-17).  In times of old, one became an Israelite by birth, and later learned of God’s law (notice the covenant spoken of was made, God says “When I took them by hand to bring them out of Egypt. This would include what was engraved upon stones cf. 1 Kings 8:21).  Jeremiah foretells of a time when things would be different.

Only those that have the law within them would be God’s people (cf. John 6:45).  “Jer. 31:34 does not    mean there will be no teaching done on the subject of the New.  Every dispensation has required teaching.  There is a basic distinction between the Old and the New in this regard.  Under the Old, the Israelites came… by physical birth… later when old enough they had to be taught to know God and honor His Covenant” (Robert Taylor, Jr., Studies in Jeremiah and Lamentations).  Such is not the way it is today.

3.  Why was this New Testament needed?

a. Look at Galatians 3:19a.  The Old Law was added (lit. ‘placed besides’).  It was independent, separate and apart from the promise.  The promise in context is the “seed promise” (Galatians 3:16-19).  This promise is tied to Jesus (Genesis 12:1-3; 22:15, 18 cf. Acts 3:25-26).  The Old Testament was never God’s ultimate system for man.

b. Read Hebrews 8:7-8.  The fault was in them (cf. Romans 3:20, 23).  The sin problem was never removed under the Old Testament system (Hebrews 10:1, 3).  It was perfect for what it was intended, that is to bring men to Christ.  But, it provided no true permanent remedy for sin.

c. Christ could never serve as our great High Priest under the previous system (Hebrews 7:12-14).

4.  When did the covenant change?

a. Read Galatians 3:19.  “Till” sets forth a time limit.  It is connected with the “seed”; the reference is to Christ (Galatians 3:16).  The “promise” is also mentioned (Gen. 22:18d cf. Acts 3:25-26).

While on earth Jesus lived under the Old Testament (Galatians 4:4).  He was the fulfilling of the Old Testament (Matthew 5:17).

b. Read Ephesians 2:14-15.  When He died, He abolished (lit. to set aside, to reduce to inactivity) the enmity [hostility, alienated relations… By figure of speech (metonymy) ‘the cause of enmity’ which is defined as ‘even the law of commandments.’].

c. Read also Colossians 2:14, 16.  This mentions a yearly event – “Holy Day” (Feast Day A.S.V.); a monthly event – “new moon”; and a weekly event “the Sabbath.”  Note the three frequencies are mentioned together in scripture in numerous places (1 Chronicles 23:31; 2 Chronicles 2:4; 8:13; 31:3; Nehemiah 10:33; Isaiah 1:13-14; Ezekiel 45:17; Hosea 2:11).

d. Also read Matthew 26:28.  Jesus’ blood is connected with the New Testament.

 e. Read Hebrews 9:16-17.  The word “men” and “Testator” is not in the original.  A. Clark’s commentary comments, “There is no proper reason why our translators should render diathaka by ‘testament’ here when in almost every other case they render it ‘covenant’…”  Again, he records his comments, “For where there is a covenant, it is necessary that the death of the appointed (victim) should be exhibited, because a covenant is confirmed over dead (victims), since it is not at all valid while the appointed (victim) is alive” (vol. 6, page 747).

f. Further, look at Hebrews 9:18-19.  First, Moses taught the people.  Then, blood was shed and the covenant went into force (Exodus 24:1-8).  Even so, Jesus set forth the basic principles of the New Testament, and then, ratified it with His own blood (Matthew 26:28).

5.  What is our relationship to the Old Testament today?

As a legal system which we are obliged to follow, the Old Testament has been taken away.  We are not today under the specifics of the Old Law.

Yet, there are principles that we should learn from the Old Testament system.  For example: (1) patience (James 5:11); (2) The behavior of Biblically sound faith (Hebrews 11); (3) Warnings about falling short of the promised land (1 Corinthians 10; book of Hebrews; Jude 5); (4) How God views sin; (5) How man is tempted; (6) Man’s origin; (7) God’s design for the home; (8) Searching Old Testament prophecies can build one’s faith; (9) The type-ante type imagery may shed a better understanding of New Testament things (Hebrews 10:1; 1 Peter 3:21; 1 Peter 2:5, 9, etc.).  (10) It is difficult to understand some references in the New Testament without understanding the Old Testament.

6.  If something was authorized in times of old, wouldn’t it still be authorized today?

No, not necessarily.  The Levitical priesthood, animal sacrifices, the burning of incense, the observance of new moons and Holy days were all a part of the system of old.  None of these things are a part of the New Testament pattern.

God can and has changed what He requires of man.  Moses was once told to strike a rock for water (Exodus 17:6);  However, later, he was told to speak to the rock (Numbers 20:8, 11-12).  This illustrates that in A-moral commandments God’s instructions can change.

It is from the New Testament we should find our authority today for what we do.  This includes how we worship; what He requires of man in dealing with sin, etc.

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An Exposé of 1 Peter 3:20-21

Posted on October 29, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

1 Peter 3:20-21 reads, “. . . In the days of Noah . . . few, that is, eight souls were saved by water. The like figure whereunto even baptism doth also now save us (not the putting away of the filth of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience toward God) by the resurrection of Jesus Christ.”

Grammatically, the comparison is not between the ark of old and baptism today. The comparison is between what the waters of old did and what baptism does for man today.

What is the comparison? The comparison is that both save. The same waters that destroyed the wicked of Noah’s day, also carried Noah and his family to safety. Water was the delineating mark between the lost and the saved then, and even so now. “Baptism doth now save.”

The parenthetical words, “(not the putting away of the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience toward God)” speaks of the dissimilarity between the waters of old, and the waters of the New Testament baptism. The waters of the old immediately removed Noah’s family from all external wickedness and sinful flesh. The term “flesh” is herein being used, just as it was in the historical account of the flood. Look at Genesis 6:11-17: “The earth was corrupt before God, and the earth was filled with violence. And God looked upon the earth, and behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth. And God said unto Noah, the end of all flesh is come before me; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh. . .” Peter says concerning the flood, “The world that then was . . . perished” (2 Peter 3:6). When Noah and his family set foot off the ark, they entered a new pristine physical world. All persecution and influence of wicked flesh was gone. The waters of the old cleansed the planet of wicked flesh. New Testament baptism will not do this for us. The waters of baptism do not make this world any less harsh. We, following baptism, still have to live, for now, in this physical world. There are still wicked men around us. [Note: Some have the idea that this verse means “baptism is not like taking a bath.” The E.S.V. reads “Not as the removal of dirt from the body”. The N.A.S.B. reads “Not the removal of dirt from the flesh”. The N.I.V. reads “Not the removal of dirt from the body”. This rendering has two problems – (1) it misses the connection with the Genesis flood; (2) it assumes the personal bathing is in view, when such does not fit the context.]

What does baptism, then, do for us? It is (. . . the answer of a good conscience toward God).” The original word rendered “answer,” Thayer defines to mean, “1. An inquiry, a question . . . 2. A demand . . . 3. As the terms of inquiry and demand often include the idea of desire, the word thus gets the idea of earnest seeking, i.e. a craving, an intense desire . . .” Vines: “Note: Eperotema, 1 Peter 3:21 is not, as in the K.J.V., an ‘answer’. It was used by the Greeks in a legal sense, as a ‘demand, or appeal’”. Arndt and Gingrich indicates the word can mean, “request, appeal . . . an appeal to God for a clear conscience, 1 Peter 3:21”.

Here is what some other translations have done with the wording. The A.S.V. translates this, “The interrogation (footnoted ‘or inquiry or appeal’) of a good conscience toward God.” The N.A.S.B. renders this, “. . . an appeal to God for a good conscience”. Charles Estes’ The Better Version of the New Testament words it, “. . . the seeking of a good conscience toward God.” Hugo McCord’s New Testament Translation of The Everlasting Gospel translates it, “. . . the appeal to God of a clear conscience”. The E.S.V. reads “. . . an appeal to God for a good conscience”.

Let’s look at some other occurrences of this original term in the sacred scriptures. The word appears in the LXX (Septuagint – Greek translation of the Old testament) in 2 Samuel 11:7: “And when Uriah came unto him, David demanded of him how Joab did, and how people did, and how war prospered.” The word rendered ‘demanded’ is the same word in the LXX. Related words appear in Acts 5:27 (there rendered ‘asked’): Matthew 12:10 (rendered ‘asked’); Matthew 16:1 (rendered ‘desired’).

The point is this: (1) Both waters of the Old and the waters of New testament baptism save. (2) the waters of Old saved Noah from wicked flesh. It cleansed the physical world. New Testament baptism does not do this. (3) In New Testament baptism, the inner man is cleansed. Our sins are washed away (Acts 22:16; Acts 2:38). The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (abridged in one volume) says, “Baptism does not confer physical cleansing but saves us as a request for forgiveness.”

Baptism does not remove this wicked world: But, it does remove our guilt of past sins, so that we may have a good conscience toward God. We can rejoice knowing our sins are completely forgiven (Acts 8:36-39 cf., Hebrews 9:7-9, 13-14, 10:3-4, 22).

Bryan, are you teaching salvation by water? Yes, I am, but not salvation by the power of water itself. Look again at 1 Peter 3:21, “. . . by the resurrection of Jesus Christ”. None of us could be saved without the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus. That is the power that saves. But the question is: Has God asked us to do anything before we receive this power? The answer is yes!

Think of Naaman. Did water have something to do with his cleansing? Yes, certainly it did. Was the power in the water itself? No! The power was not in the water itself, but in God. Naaman understood this fact (2 Kings 5:15). But, the cleansing came when he complied with what God made as a condition for healing. Even so, it is here. The power is in God and the blood of Christ. The question is: When does God apply such to our lives? Baptism is inseparably linked with the blood of Christ (1 Peter 3:21; Rev. 7:14; Acts 22:16; Rom. 6:3-4).

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Selection and Rejection of Elder, Deacons, and Preachers

Posted on October 26, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

Elders

We’ve studied the qualifications (1 Timothy 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9).  Now, we’ll look at how these men are selected.  Paul and Barnabas are said to have “ordained (appointed NASB/NKJV) elders in every church” in the region of Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch (Acts 14:23).  Titus is told by Paul to do the same in Crete (Titus 1:5).  Thus, Preachers had a role in the process.

Does the word “ordain” or “appoint” indicate that the preacher is to select the elders?  No, the word in no way implies this.  The original wording of Titus 1:5, also appears in Acts 6:3.  A reading of Acts 6 reveals: (1) The “multitude of disciples” in the church at Jerusalem did the seeking out from among them and the choosing of qualified men – Acts 6:2, 3, 5; (2) The apostles (preachers) did the appointing – Acts 6:3-6.  The people made the selection and the apostles formally or officially installed them.  A preacher may teach on the subject.  He may move the process along.  He may preside over the installation ceremony.  However, the people do the selecting.

The word ‘ordain’ in Acts 14:23 is different than the word in Acts 6:3 and Titus 1:5.  The word means “primarily to stretch out the hand; secondarily, to appoint by a show of the hand; and thirdly, to appoint or elect without regard to method.  Whether it designates here an act of Paul and Barnabas, or one which they caused the people to do, is not made clear.  The force of the word favors the former view, while the previous act of the twelve in requiring the multitude to choose the deacons (6:1-3) favors the later” (McGarvey: New Commentary on Acts).  Whatever the case, it seems clear the precedent or Acts 6 would indicate that the church members of the local congregation do the choosing [ “A Fortiori principle”  (see article on qualifications of an elder for a fuller discussion of this principle).  The process of the selection of the lesser office of deacon sets the precedent for the selection of the greater office of elder.  This is especially evident when the process is specified for the lesser office but not explicitly stated for the greater, but related office.]

No authority exists for a committee to be set up which by-passes or circumvents this process.

Further, an eldership is not a self-perpetuating organization.  The members of the church choose the elders.  There is no authority for things to be done otherwise.

A man should maintain the qualifications and continue to do the work of an elder.  Curtis Cates has written, “If he becomes disqualified or ceases to carry out the task, he should resign,”  but then he cautions against resigning for the wrong reasons saying, “an elder should not resign in the midst of battle…” (TGJ Vol. 9, No. 2, page 8), to do such would be to abandon one’s duty.

What if one is concerned that an elder is no longer qualified, or is no longer doing his duties?  The answer is the elder should be confronted with such, if the evidence is adequate (1 Timothy 5:19-20).  Like anyone else he should be given the opportunity to repent.  If repentance is not forth-coming, a congregation should handle the situation as one would other known sinners among them who refuse to repent.

A word of caution: one should not expect an elder to be one who never sins or falls short.  We all do so from time to time.  The real issue is how does the man deal with such?

Another word of caution, to rebel against God’s appointed men is to rebel against God (see Numbers 12, Numbers 16), to murmur against them is to murmur against God (Exodus 16:1-2 cf. 7-8; Numbers 14:1-2 cf. 27; Numbers 16:11).  One should be careful when complaining against elders, deacons, or preachers.

Deacons

Their qualifications were studied (1 Timothy 3:8-13).  Remember that the apostles seem to have functioned as the authority in the local church at Jerusalem, prior to the establishment of the eldership (see Acts 4:35, 37; 5:2 cf. 11:30).  Therefore, following the precedent of Acts 6, the eldership should decide if they need to add deacons, and how many.

The congregation then seeks out and chooses men qualified men.  The congregation, not the elders or the preacher alone, does this. If a deacon is no longer qualified, what was said under the elders above holds true here, as well.  Also, if the deacon has fulfilled his duties and the elders have no more assignments for him.  Then he really is no longer a deacon.  One should not be a deacon in name alone.

Again, I would caution all to remember, there is only one sinless man who ever lived.  Don’t have unrealistic expectations of those who serve.

Preacher

God has not specified which individual is to preach any given Sunday in the pulpit before the assembly.  The elders have authority in unspecified matters [see The Work of Elders].  They decide who preaches and such should be accepted unless one is disqualified by God to preach (e.g. women preachers, non-Christians, etc.).  The elders ordain the preacher not some denominational board.  Note: It is hard to understand how some congregations have an eldership and yet the preacher is selected by a preacher selection committee.  I never understood how an eldership could delegate such an important decision.

A preacher should not be dismissed for preaching the truth (cf. Galatians 4:6).  Moreover, he should not be dismissed for some of the flimsy reasons given today, such as: (1) “He’s too young, or too old” (cf. 1 Timothy 4:12; 1 Corinthians 16:10-11; 11:16); (2) “It’s just time for a change.” Is the man doing his work?  Often, it’s not just the preacher who needs to change.  Congregations who change preachers frequently think that it’ll solve their problems or lack of growth history of the congregation usually shows little was solved by doing so.  (3) Numbers alone (cf. 2 Peter 2:5; 1 Peter 3:20).  (4) “We don’t like his personality.”  Folks, if we can’t get along here, what are we going to do in heaven?  Or will we be there?

If, on the other hand: (1) The preacher is no longer doing his work as he should; (2) The preacher is no longer submissive to the elder’s authority as he should be; (3) He has sin in his life for which he refuses to repent; (4) The preacher’s influence and reputation is tarnished or gone in the community – then, it may well be time to move on to another preacher.  The elders make this call and will be, no doubt, accountable before God.

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Qualifications of Preachers

Posted on October 24, 2012 by Bryan Hodge

Like elders, preachers are referred to by different terms in the Bible.  Each of these terms reveal much about their role.  They are called: (1) Ministers or servants – Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 3:5; 4:1; 2 Cor. 3:6; 6:4; Eph. 3:7; 6:21; Col. 1:7; 1:23; 1:25; 4:7; 1 Thes. 3:2; 1 Tim. 4:6; 2 Tim. 2:24.  The word means “a servant” (Vine’s).  These men are ministers of Christ (Rom. 15:16; 1 Cor. 4:1; Col. 1:7; 1 Tim. 4:6), the Lord (2 Tim. 2:24), God (2 Cor. 6:4; 1 Thes. 3:2).   (2) Evangelist – Acts 21:8; Eph. 4:11; 2 Tim. 4:5.  The word means “a bringer of good tidings” (Thayer), “lit. a messenger of good” (Vine’s).  They proclaim the Gospel. (3) Preacher – Rom. 10:14; 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11; 2 Pet. 2:5.

Timothy is called a minister (1 Tim. 4:6 cf. 2 Tim. 4:5), and an evangelist (2 Tim. 4:5).  He is also told to “preach the word” (2 Tim. 4:2).  The three words can be used interchangeably.

Maybe, you haven’t thought about it.  However, there are qualifications (or maybe characteristics is a better term) that should be met and maintained by a preacher.

Positive Qualifications

  1. His is to be “apt to teach” KJV, “able to teach”  NKJV/NASB (2 Tim. 2:24).  The word in the original language means “skilled in teaching” (Vine’s).  The man is to know the book and be able to convey it to others.  This same word is used of elders (1 Tim. 3:2; Tit. 1:9).
  2. He’s to be “gentle unto all men” KJV, “kind to all” NASB (2 Tim. 2:24).  This word means “affable… mild, gentle” (Thayer), “mild, gentle, was frequently used by the Greek writers as characterizing a nurse with trying children or a teacher with refractory scholars, or of a parent toward children” (Vine’s).  Paul employed this term saying, “we were gentle among you, even as a nurse cherisheth her children” (1 Thes. 2:7).
  3. He’s to be “patient” KJV, “patient when wronged” NASB, “forbearing” ASV (2 Tim. 2:24).  The word means “patiently forbearing evil, lit. patient of wrong” (Vine’s), “patient of ills and wrongs, forbearing” (Thayer).  Denny Petrillo has written, “Every preacher is going to be wronged, and it is hard to be patient with those guilty of committing this wrong.  The word for this expression… has to do with bearing evil without resentment” (Commenting on this verse in his commentary on 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus, p. 130).  He is to gently correct those in the wrong (2 Tim. 2:25).
  4. He is to be a good representation of Christianity (1 Tim. 4:12).  He’s to be an example in word (speech NASB), in conversation (conduct NASB/NKJV), in charity (love NASB/NKJV), in Spirit (attitude, energy B.H.), in faith (trust, reliance upon God B.H.), in purity (holiness B.H. – sometimes connected with sexual purity cf. 1 Tim. 5:2).  In other words, he’s not just to preach a good message.  He should be striving to live by that same message.  It has been said, “He is a poor preacher who cannot preach a better message than he lives, but he is a poorer preacher who does not strive hard to live up to what he preaches” (read Rom. 2:1-3, 21-24).
  5. He is to “flee” sinful lusts (2 Tim. 2:22).  The word “flee” means “to flee i.e. … to flee away, seek safely by flight… to flee (to shun or avoid by flight” (Thayer).  He needs to be as Joseph (Gen. 39:1-15).  He needs to look for that way of escape (1 Cor. 10:13).  The word “flee” is the root from which the word “fugitive” is derived.  He should have the determination not to be caught by sin, that a fugitive has about the ones pursuing him.
  6. He is to “follow” (pursue NKJV/NASB) the right things (2 Tim. 2:22).  Things like: righteousness, faith, charity (love NKJV/NASB), and peace are to be pursued.  The word “follow” means “to run swiftly in order to catch some person or some thing, to run after… to pursue i.e. to seek after eagerly, earnestly endeavor to acquire” (Thayer).  He should be pursuing these things as a hunter does his or its prey (think of a cheetah after a gazelle).

Negative Qualifications

  1. He “must not strive” KJV, “must not quarrel” NKJV, “must not be quarrelsome NASB (2 Tim. 2:24).  The word means “to fight, to quarrel, dispute” (Vine’s), and can be used of “those who engage in a war of words, to quarrel, wrangle, dispute” (Thayer).  Clearly, he’s to be one who contends for the faith (Jude 3), and defends the Gospel (Phil. 1:17).  However,In context, it is speaking of striving over words to no profit (2 Tim. 2:14).  While a man is to contend, he is not to be contentious.  Some people just love to argue.  Such will not help the church to grow.
  2. He is to avoid “foolish and unlearned questions” KJV, “foolish and ignorant disputes” NKJV, “foolish and ignorant speculations” NASB  (2 Tim. 2:23).  Such hobbies “gender strifes” KJV, “generate strife” NKJV, “produce quarrels” NASB.  The books of 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus speak of “fables” (1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; 2 Tim. 4:4; Tit. 1:14), “genealogies” (1 Tim. 1:4; Tit. 3:9), and “questions” (1 Tim. 1:4; 6:4; 2 Tim. 2:23; Tit. 3:9).  Evidently some were obsessed about Jewish fables, and genealogy and questions which perhaps God hasn’t answered (cf. Deut. 29:29).  Timothy was to avoid such needless controversy.

Family Qualifications

While a preacher need not be married, if he is married the wife is to be “a sister,” that is a Christian (1 Cor. 9:3-6).  I can’t imagine being without the help of a Christian wife, much less preaching with a non-Christian wife.

Implied Qualifications

One thing that is clearly implied is that the man is to be courageous.  He is to “preach the word; be instant in season, out of season; reprove, rebuke, exhort with all longsuffering and doctrine” (2 Tim. 4:2).  He is to preach it when they like it and when they don’t, when it’s in style and when it is out.  He is to hold back nothing that is profitable (Acts 20:20).

Posted in Church Organization, Preachers, Preaching | Tagged , , , , | 3 Comments