The Bible contains both literal language and figurative language. Literal language is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence in its normal, usual sense. Figurative language is the use of a word, phrase, or sentence in a way which departs from its normal, usual sense (Clint Lockhart, Principles of Interpretation, p. 156, Wayne Jackson, Biblical Figures of Speech, p. 2). It is important that a Bible student be able to recognize when language is figurative language, and be able to interpret figurative language.
19. Recognizing Figurative Language
(1) Preference should be given to the literal.
Clint Lockhart explains, “Since the literal is the most usual signification of a word, and therefore occurs much more frequently than the figurative, any term will be regarded as literal until there is good reason for a different understanding” (Lockhart, Principles of Interpretation, p. 157).
(2) Consider the context.
Does the context suggest that the language should be understood as figurative? Nothing should be regarded as figurative unless there is good contextual reason to do so.
(3) A word or sentence may be figurative, if the literal meaning is impossible.
Some examples: The Canaanites’ literal hearts did not melt (Joshua 2:11). Jeremiah did not literally become a fortified city (Jeremiah 1:18). God is not a literal rock or fortress (Psalm 18:2). The literal dead cannot bury the dead (Matthew 8:22). Recording all the things Jesus did not earth would not literally require more space than this world has (John 21:25).
Roy H. Deaver warns, “Be careful with this rule – be certain the sentence really involves a literal impossibility before interpreting figuratively” (Deaver, Brown Trail class notes on Hermeneutics, p. 36).
(4) The language of scripture may be figurative, if the literal interpretation will cause one passage to contradict another.
Some examples: Was Lazarus literally asleep (John 11:11) or dead (John 11:14)? Did the people see the signs (John 6:2) or not (John 6:26-27)?
Wayne Jackson advises, “When… two passages seem to conflict, one must ask: Is it possible that the words of these verses, that appear to contradict one another, may be employed, in fact in different ways?” (Jackson, Biblical Figures of Speech, p. 11).
If the Bible is from God, then it must harmonize. God is not the author of confusion (1 Corinthians 14:33).
(5) If a literal understanding demands that which is wrong, then it may be figurative.
An example: Surely, we are not literally to hate our families (Luke 14:26 cf. Ephesians 5:25; Titus 2:4; Ephesians 6:2; Romans 1:31; 2 Timothy 3:3).
Note: This point is really much the same as the previous point.
(6) When a scripture is said to be figurative, it may be so regarded.
Some examples: Some of Jesus’ parables are identified as parables (e.g. Luke 15:3; Luke 18:1). Sometimes the writer informs the reader that the language was figurative (John 2:19-22).
(7) Sometimes the definite is put for the indefinite.
Some examples: I do not believe that the Israelite youths were literally quantified ten times better (Daniel 1:19-20). Forgiving seven times in a day should not be literally understood as seven times (Luke 17:3-4 cf. Matthew 18:22).
(8) Mockery is sometimes said in figurative language.
An example: Elijah did not literally think that Baal existed (1 Kings 18:27).
(9) Consider the type of literature.
Clint Lockhart has written, “Literature has many varieties. It is not all merely history, discourse, song, and dialogue. There are law, record, proverb, drama, description, story, psalm, parable, prophecy, epistle, elegy, rhapsody and many other kinds. It is evident that in all these forms of composition thought is expressed in many different ways, and that the interpreter should have same familiarity with each of them. He that does not understand the forms in which ideas are set forth will hardly be able to recognize the ideas when they appear” (Lockhart, p. 57).
Some types of literature are more prone to figurative language than others. Poetry, wisdom literature, and prophetic book are very likely to contain figurative language. Law, records, and history are much less likely to contain figurative language.
20. Interpreting Figurative Language
(1) Look for the author’s or the Bible’s own interpretation.
Sometimes the meaning is explained. Some examples: The LORD provided an explanation for Ezekiel’s vision of The Valley of Dry Bones (Ezekiel 37:11-14 cf. 37:1-10). Jesus explained The Parable of the Sower (Matthew 13:18-23 cf. 13:3-9), and The Parable of Tares (Matthew 13:36-43 cf. 13:24-30). John explained what Jesus meant when He said that He would raise up the temple in three days (John 2:21 cf. 2:19). Peter said: this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel (Acts 2:16-21 cf. Joel 2:28-32).
(2) The interpretation of a passage should be made according to the known purpose of the author and in light of the topic under consideration.
Some examples: Jesus told The Parable of the Good Samaritan in response to a question (Luke 10:25-37). Jesus told The Parables of the Lost Sheep, the Lost Coin, and the Lost Son because of the Pharisees and Scribes (Luke 15:1-32). Jesus was teaching of prayer when He told The Parable of the Persistent Widow (Luke 18:1-8). The reason for The Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector is that some trusted in themselves and despised others (Luke 18:9-14).
(3) Compare the figurative language with the literal account of the same things.
Some examples: Luke 14:26 should be compared with Matthew 10:37. Acts 10:9-16 should be compared with Acts 10:17-48.
D.R. Dungan adds, “In doing this (comparing the figurative with the literal – B.H.)… you can not make the figurative contradict the literal. It may add beauty and strength to the literal statement, but it cannot teach differently” (Dungan, Hermeneutics, pp. 206-207).
(4) Think about the resemblance of the thing compared.
Some examples: Jesus is referred to as a lamb without blemish and without spot (1 Peter 1:18-19). Why? Jesus is referred to as a lion (Revelation 5:5). Why? The devil is referred to as a lion (1 Peter 5:8). Why?
(5) Be careful not to demand too many points of comparison.
The fact that something is being compared does not mean that everything is being compared. Roy H. Deaver has written, “Remember that when two items are compared, there must be some differences. Otherwise, the two items would be the same thing” (Deaver, Brown Trail class notes on Hermeneutics, p. 38). Usually, only one or two points of comparison are being made, no more than a few. Some details in a parable may be there for back-drop, to tell the story or paint the picture. Not every thing necessarily represents something else. Look for the obvious comparison(s); be careful not to demand more, without good reason. Wayne Jackson cautions, “A parable divorced from context, can often become fertile soil for speculators…The language of a parable must not be pressed beyond its intended design…No point of doctrine, that is not elsewhere clearly affirmed, may be derived from an incidental parabolic reference” (Jackson, The Parables In Profile, pp. 11-12). What he said about parables is also wise advise for other forms of comparison.
(6) Keep in mind that figures are not always used with the same meaning.
Consider the word “leaven.” Leaven may refer to evil influence (1 Corinthians 5:6; Galatians 5:9) or good influence (Matthew 13:20-21).
D.R. Dungan has written, “A lion may not always symbolize the same thought, nor need a sheep, water, or fire always be employed for the purpose of expressing the same calamity or blessing” (Dungan, p. 216).
Roy H. Deaver gave these examples from everyday life: bear-hungry; bear-sleepy; mule-strong; mule-stubborn; dog-work like a dog; dog-lazy dog (Brown Trail class notes, p. 38).
(7) Parables may explain parables.
An example: John 10:1-6 compare with John 10:7-18.
(8) The type and anti-type are sometimes seen together.
An example: The flood (type) and baptism (anti-type) are seen together in 1 Peter 3:20-21.
(9) Facts of history and biography may be made to assist in the interpretation of figurative language.
Some examples: A knowledge of history may help one identify the four kingdoms mentioned in Daniel 2. A knowledge of the character of Herod Antipas may help one understand why he is called a fox in Luke 13:32. A knowledge if the customs of the day may add to one’s understanding of The Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins (Matthew 25:1-13).
* I claim no originality for the information in this article. These points were gleaned from: D.R. Dungan’s Hermeneutics; Clint Lockhart’s Principles of Interpretation; Roy H. Deaver’s Brown Trail class notes on Hermeneutics; and Wayne Jackson’s Biblical Figures of Speech.
Bryan Hodge 
Suggestions for Bible Students (Part 3)
Wayne Jackson has written, “It is the epitome of folly to ignore the labors of countless Bible scholars across the centuries who have made available, by means of the printed page, the results of their research. One of the wonders of the human mind is that it can build upon the knowledge of previous generations, and this is no less true of sacred knowledge. Every Christian needs to build a personal religious library of good tools that will enhance his understanding of the scriptures and his ability to convey that information to others” (Jackson, A Study Guide to Greater Bible Knowledge, p. 83).
One could spend a fortune on books, software, and other tools. “Of making many books there is no end” (Ecclesiastes 12:12). I am not suggesting that every Bible student should spend a great deal of money to acquire a large library of books, software, and other tools. However, a few basic tools would be helpful to Bible study. In this article, I will make a few suggestions.
8. A Good Translation
There are two basic approaches to translation. (1) One approach is referred to as Formal Equivalence (aka Modified Literal). This approach “attempts to translate the words and nuances of the original as literal as possible provided that clarity is conveyed in English” (Jackson, The Bible Translation Controversy, p. 5). (2) The other approach is referred to as Dynamic Equivalence (aka Functional Equivalence). This approach “attempts to convey the meaning of the text in free idiomatic English without much regard for the exact wording of the original” (ibid).
One’s primary Bible for reading and studying should be a Formal Equivalent translation. Some major translations which used this philosophy include: the King James Version; the American Standard Bible; the New American Standard Bible; the New King James Version; the English Standard Version. I am fond of the New King James Version.
Dynamic Equivalent translations may have value. However, the translator “becomes more of a commentator than a translator” (ibid). Some translations which used this philosophy include: the New International Version; the New Living Translation; the Contemporary English Version.
Readability is also important. The King James Version is written on a 12th grade reading level. The American Standard’s reading level, I could not find, but it also is probably on a similar reading level. The New American Standard Bible is written on an 11th grade reading level. The New King James version is written on a 9th grade reading level. The English Standard Version is written on an 8th grade reading level. For comparison, the New International Version is on a 7.8 grade reading level (Source: Bible Comparison Guide by Zondervan).
There is also the matter of textual family. Some translations use the Byzantine Family of manuscripts. These include the King James Version and the New King James Version. Others use the Alexandrian Family of manuscripts, or an Eclectic text. These include the American Standard Version, the New International Version, the New American Standard Bible, the English Standard Version. There are textual differences between these two families of manuscripts. However, I do not think that these differences are nearly as important as translation philosophy. The preface to the New Open Bible reads, “Bible readers may be assured that most important differences in the English New Testaments of today are due, not to manuscript divergence, but to the way in which the translators viewed the task of translation.” Geisler and Nix have concluded, “Actually, the variant readings which significantly affect the sense of a passage are less than ten percent of the New Testament, and none of these affect any basic doctrine of the Christian faith” (Geisler and Nix, A General Introduction to The Bible, p. 489). Again, they write, “Westcott and Hort estimated that only one-eighth of all the variants had any weight, as most of them are merely mechanical matters such as spelling or style. Of the whole, then, only about one-sixtieth rise above ‘trivialities,’ or can in any sense be called ‘substantial’ variations. Mathematically that would compute to a text that is 99.33 percent pure whether the critic adopts the Textus Receptus, Majority Text, Nestle-Aland Text, or some eclectic text of the New Testament” (ibid, p. 474). Neil Lightfoot concluded, ” Textual variants are of different types and degrees of importance. Most variants are obvious slips made by a scribe and present no problem. …Some represent substantial variation, but in this number no unique Biblical teaching or divine command is involved” (Lightfoot, How We Got The Bible, p. 96). Roderick Ross has stated “The vast majority of the manuscripts of New Testament agree with one another almost letter for letter. It has been estimated that these comprise 95-96% of the manuscripts extant” ( ed. Terry Hightower, A Handbook On Bible Translations, p.380).
J.W. McGarvey gave this illustration about the transmission of scripture and the manuscript evidence. “The case is like that of a certain will. A gentleman left a large estate entailed to his descendants of the third generation, and it was not to be divided until a majority of them should be of age. During the interval many copies of the will were circulated among parties interested, many of these being copies of copies. In the meantime, the office of record in which the original was filed was burned with all its contents. When the time for division drew near, a prying attorney gave out among the heirs the report that no two existing copies of the will were alike. This alarmed them all and set them busily at work to ascertain the truth of the report. On comparing copy with copy, they found the report true, but on close inspection it was discovered that the differences consisted in errors of spelling or grammatical construction; some mistakes in figures corrected by the written numbers; and some other differences not easily accounted for; but that in none of the copies did these mistakes affect the rights of the heirs. In the essential matters for which the will was written the representations of all the copies were precisely the same. The result was that they divided the estate with perfect satisfaction to all, and they were more certain that they had executed the will of their grandfather than if the original copy had been alone preserved; for it might have been tampered with in the interest of a single heir, but the copies, defective though they were, could not have been. So, with the New Testament.” (J.W. McGarvey, Evidences of Christianity, part 1, page 17).
9. An exhaustive concordance
A concordance is a verbal index to the Bible. Many Bibles contain a brief concordance in the back, after the New Testament. However, An English language exhaustive concordance lists every word which appears in an English Bible in alphabetical order. Strong’s and Young’s are based on the King James Version.
I recommend the Strong’s Concordance. It has assigned a number to each word in the original language. These words can be looked up in the Hebrew dictionary and the Greek dictionary in the back of the book. Other tools have also adopted this same numbering system (e.g. Thayer’s Greek – English Lexicon; Vine’s Expository Dictionary, etc.). If I were going to have only one book in addition to the Bible, this would be it.
10. A topical Bible
A topical Bible might be thought of as a topical concordance. Nave’s Topical Bible is good. It contains Biblical references to over 20,000 topics.
11. An atlas
An atlas is a book of maps. Some Bibles contain good maps within them. A good atlas will contain more. Baker’s Bible Atlas is good. It provides much information on places mentioned in the Bible.
12. Dictionary/lexicon
It is valuable to be able to look up the meaning of words, the words of the original languages. If you have little or no familiarity of the original languages, I recommend Vine’s Expository Dictionary of Biblical Words. Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon can also be used without any familiarity with Greek, if you also have a Strong’s concordance. It is coded with Strong’s numbers.
Caution: Using an English dictionary, such as Webster, to look up the meaning of Biblical words can be a problem. For instance, if you look up “baptism” in an English dictionary, it may give the following definition, or something near to it: “The application of water to a person, as a sacrament or religious ceremony by which he is initiated into the visible church of Christ. This is usually performed by sprinkling, pouring, or immersion, the act varying with the tenet of various churches.” The dictionary is not defining the meaning of the original word or telling you how the Bible uses the word. Instead, the dictionary is telling you how the word is used today. The Bible sometimes uses words very differently than how they are used today. Moreover, behind the English word in your English Bible is an original word (Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic). It is the original word and its usage in the Bible, and especially the context of the passage that is important.
13. Bible dictionaries/encyclopedias
These are helpful to researching people, places, and things. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia is helpful, but somewhat pricey. More affordable is The Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary.
14. Survey of books of the Bible
There are books which help survey the books of the Bible. Here are three helpful books: Halley’s Bible Handbook by H.H. Halley; A Survey of Old Testament Introduction by Gleason Archer Jr.; New Testament Introduction by Donald Guthrie.
15. Commentaries/Study Bibles
Wayne Jackson warns, “It is exceedingly difficult to find Bible commentaries that do not reflect sectarian bias. In using a commentary, therefore, it is quite important to know the religious persuasion of the author. In the majority of commentaries on the religious market today, information concerning God’s plan of salvation, the church, New Testament worship, etc., will be erroneous. If this fact is recognized, many of these works can be used to great profit in others areas of biblical knowledge” (A Study Guide to Greater Bible Knowledge, p. 90).
Here are some recommendations: Gospel Advocate Commentaries; Coffman’s Commentaries; Gospel Light Commentaries; B.W. Johnson commentary; Truth for Today’s Commentaries; J.W. McGarvey Commentaries, especially his original commentary on Acts; Homer Hailey Commentaries; Roy Deaver’s commentary on Romans; R.L. Whiteside’s commentary on Romans; Ray Summers’ commentary on Revelation; Wayne Jackson Commentaries; Robert Taylor Jr. Commentaries; Tom Wacaster Commentaries; Denton lectureship books; Shertz lectureship books; Spiritual Sword lectureship books; Memphis School of Preaching lectureship books; Southwest School of Bible Studies lectureship books; Power lectureship books; Adam Clark commentaries; Barnes’ Notes.
Which study Bible contain helpful notes? The New Open Bible, and The English Standard Study Bible contain some helpful notes. The NIV Study Bible contains some helpful charts and notes, though I am not big on the NIV translation. Old favorites are the Thompson Chain Reference Bible, and the Dickson Study Bible. Remember these notes are the comments of uninspired men.
Note: This should not be viewed as a total endorsement of all that are written in these books, and study notes.
16. Technology
I am a dinosaur, when it comes to technology. Others could better write on this point.
However, there are many amazing tools available for your phone or computer. Our church website churchofchristyoungsport.org contains links to Vine’s Expository Dictionary and studylight.org which contains over 100 commentaries. This is free to access.
One should also consider downloading the Blue Letter Bible app. It contains concordances, Bible translations, lexicons, cross references and other study tools. It is free.
Logos Bible Software is an amazing digital library of information. There are different packages. Cost varies by package. It is expensive. It is worth investigating if you are a serious Bible student.
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